The Discovery Telomerase Essay Example for Free

The Discovery Telomerase Essay The linear chromosomes of eukaryotes are more complex than the circular chromosomes of the bacteria. Due to the biochemical properties of DNA polymerases, the replication of the eukaryotic chromosomes poses a special problem: the maintenance of the length of the linear chromosomes. However, it was discovered that a unique enzyme complex appears to play a crucial in maintaining the length of eukaryotic chromosomes. This enzyme is known as the telomerase. Its regulative action on the eukaryotic cell implies that it may also be involved in the process of aging and in the development of cancer cells. In this paper, the telomerase becomes the focus of study. The discovery, properties, and functions of the telomerase inside the eukaryotic cells will be described, based on the recent scientific studies that have been conducted about them. And finally, current and potential applications that involve this enzyme, in the field of biotechnology, will be presented. The Discovery of Telomerase When the telomerase was first discovered by Carol Greider in 1984, many geneticists and molecular biologists like her have already been puzzling over the observation that the tips of chromosomes are stabilised by telomeres. Telomeres are mere regions in the DNA in which sections of them are no longer copied during the process of cell division and chromosome replication (Vermolen 2005). But the fact that a small section of a telomere is not copied should result in shorter telomeres in the daughter cells. Strangely, this does not occur and scientists can only surmise that something maintains the length of the telomere and it could be an enzyme that is yet unknown. Then, on that fateful Christmas Day in 1984, Greider found the elusive enzyme through the use of autoradiography (Skloot 2001). The telomerase is the enzyme that is responsible for maintaining the genetic material found at the tips of the chromosomes. The Properties of Telomerase The telomerase is an enzyme and this brings to mind two basic characteristics. First, any enzyme is composed of a protein. In the case of telomerase, the protein is the RNA and it can be considered as a ribozyme (Brown 2005). And second, any enzyme is a natural catalyst of all chemical reactions within the body of an organism. This means that the telomerase facilitates a vital biochemical reaction. But the exact mechanism that the telomerase executes to maintain the length of the telomere during chromosomal replication can only be determined if the properties of it are known. And the properties can be known if the specific nature of the structure of the RNA is established. The telomerase is composed of two components, the essential RNA and the TERT. The latter, which stands for telomerase reverse transcriptase, is the catalytic protein. It â€Å"contains sequence motifs homologous to those in the catalytic domain of reverse transcriptase enzymes† (Chen Greider 2004, p. 14683). This is concluded because the TERT is remains the same in all eukaryotes. The structure of the RNA component, however, is more challenging to characterise. This is because the telomerase RNA varies in terms of size and sequence. Fortunately, the overall structure of the telomerase RNA in many ciliates and vertebrates was eventually established (Chen, Blasco Greider 2000). The common process utilized was the phylogenetic analysis (Tzfati 2003). However, the characterization of telomerase RNA did not reveal similarities. There are large differences among the telomerase RNA structures of different organisms. For example, the RNA of ciliates has a conserved sequence motif found in helix I (Lai 2002), where as the RNA of yeasts seeks several helical regions as the binding sites for the telomerase’s Est1 protein (Peterson et al 2001). Thus, there was a need to ascertain a core structure. This core structure is also referred to as the secondary Blackburn (2004) and her colleagues, by using telomerase RNAs of yeasts, proposed a core structure out of the process of delineating nucleotides and base pairings. They showed that a pseudoknot structure is an essential component of the telomerase RNA because it plays an important role during the binding process. Figure 1: The TERT binding and the pseudoknot The Functions of Telomerase The most obvious function of the telomerase, as stated before, is the maintenance of the length of the linear chromosomes of eukaryotes. This is carried out through a process known as reverse transcription. But, among scientists, this general statement is insufficient, especially before the advancing knowledge in biochemistry. And now that the structure of the telomerase is established, the next question to be answered is how the telomerase actually and specifically works. There is no consensus so far, but the results of various studies can be combined to form a better picture of the function of telomerase. Here are three of the most significant ones. First, it was firmly established by several studies that there is a long-range base-pairing that occurs at the Est2 binding site (Chappell Lundblad 2004; Dandjinou et al 2004; Lin et al 2004; Zapulla Cech 2004). Second, the pseudoknot performs various functions: binding at Est2 among yeasts and other replication-related activities among vertebrates (Livengood et al 2002). And third, the TERT proteins of the telomerase locate specific domains and these domains are referred to as motif T. This motif T is vital for RNA binding (Friedman Cech 1999; Kelleher et al 2002). The specific actions of the two components of the telomerase are vital towards the determining its applications. Current and Potential Applications of Telomerase There have been several misunderstandings about the application of telomerase in the field of biotechnology. The most popular false notion about telomerase is that it is the fountain of youth. Telomerase does not make a person stay young forever. What the telomerase can do is to support the replication of the chromosome and then, after many years, allow the state of senescence. It must be remembered that the telomerase only act upon the tips of the chromosomes and not on the lifestyle of a person. This implies that if a person decides to live a dangerous or unhealthy lifestyle, neither his telomerase nor any modification on this enzyme will ever prevent his early death. The telomerase does not immortalize any organism. But this does not mean that the telomerase has no significant application. One of the most significant applications of telomerase is in the field of oncology. That is, the telomerase has been found to act abnormally during the replication of cancer cells. In normal cells, the action of telomerase ceases right after the chromosomal replication. But in cancer cells, the telomerase remains active. Scientists assume that there must be some structural difference between the telomerase of normal cells and that of cancer cells. If the structural difference is found, it might be possible for molecular biologists to seek out cancerous cells by seeking the telomerase only. Then, a person who has cancer at the early stages can be diagnosed immediately and can utilize cancer therapeutic treatments that involve the inhibition of the abnormal telomerase (Shay et al 2001). Conclusion The discovery of the telomerase is one of the most significant events in science history. It can be considered as vital as the discovery of the double helix structure of the DNA. This is because this enzyme allows the accurate and regulated replication of the linear chromosomes of eukaryotes. But, just as the discovery of the enzyme was challenging, the establishment of its properties and functions are equally difficult to carry out. Yet, molecular biologists persevere and came up with interesting possible applications of telomerase. Bibliography Blackburn, EH, Lin, J, Ly, H, Hussain, A, Abraham, M, Pearl, S, Tzfati, Y, Parslow, TG 2004, ‘A universal telomerase RNA core structure includes structured motifs required for binding the telomerase reverse transcriptase protein’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 41, October, pp. 14713-14718, National Academy of Sciences pnas. 0405879101 viewed 10 September 2007, http://www. pnas. org/cgi/content/abstract/101/41/14713. Brown, J 2005, ‘What the Heck is an Enzyme’ Bugs in the News, viewed 10 September 2007, http://people. ku. edu/~jbrown/whatheck. html. Chappell, AS, Lundblad, V 2004, ‘Structural Elements Required for Association of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Telomerase RNA with the Est2 Reverse Transcriptase’ Molecular Cell Biology, 24: 7720-7736. Chen, JL, Blasco, MA, Greider, CW 2000, ‘Secondary structure of vertebrate telomerase RNA’ Cell, 100: 503-514. Chen, JL, Greider, CW 2004, ‘An emerging consensus for telomerase RNA structure’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 41, October, pp. 14683-14684, National Academy of Sciences pnas. 0406204101 viewed 10 September 2007, http://www. pnas. org/cgi/content/full/101/41/14683. Dandjinou, At, Levesque, N, Larose, S, Lucier, JF, Abou-Elela, S, Wellinger RJ 2004, ‘A phylogenetically based secondary structure for the yeast telomerase RNA’ Current Biology, 14: 1148-1158. Friedman, KL, Cech, TR 1999, ‘Essential functions of amino-terminal domains in the yeast telomerase catalytic subunit revealed by selection for viable mutants’ Genes Dev. 13: 2863–2874. Kelleher, C, Teixeira, MT, Forstemann, K, Lingner, J 2002, ‘Telomerase: biochemical considerations for enzyme and substrate’ Trends Biochem. Sci. 27: 572–579. Lai, CK, Miller, MC, Collins, K 2002, ‘Template boundary definition in Tetrahymena telomerase’ Genes Development, 16: 415–420. Lin, J, Ly, H, Hussain, A, Abraham, M, Pearl, S, Tzfati, Y, Parslow, TG, Blackburn, EH 2004, A universal telomerase RNA core structure includes structured motifs required for binding the telomerase reverse transcriptase protein’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 41, October, pp. 14713-14718 Livengood, AJ, Zaug, AJ, Cech, TR 2002, ‘Essential Regions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Telomerase RNA: Separate Elements for Est1p and Est2p Interaction’ Mol. Cell. Biol. 22: 2366–2374 Peterson, SE, Stellwagen, AE, Diede, SJ, Singer, MS, Haimberger, ZW, Johnson, CO, Tzoneva, M. Gottschling, DE 2001, ‘The function of a stem-loop in telomerase RNA is linked to the DNA repair protein Ku’ Nat. Genet. 27: 64–67. Shay, J, Zou, Y, Hiyama, E, Woodring, EW 2001, ‘Telomerase and cancer’ Human Molecular Genetics, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 677-685. Skloot, R 2001, ‘The Marvels of Telomerase’ Hopkins Medical News, winter 2001, viewed 10 September 2007, http://www. hopkinsmedicine. org/hmn/W01/top. html. Tzfati, Y, Knight, Z, Roy, J, Blackburn, E H 2003, A novel pseudoknot element is essential for the action of a yeast telomerase, Genes Development 17: 1779–1788. Vermolen, BJ, Garini, Y, Mai, S, Mougey, V, Fest, T, Chuang, TCY, Chuang, AYC, Wark, L, Young, IT 2005, ‘Characterizing the Three-Dimensional Organization of Telomeres’ Cytometry, 67A: 144-150. Zapulla, DC, Cech, TR 2004, ‘Yeast telomerase RNA: A flexible scaffold for protein subunits’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.

Expatriate Management in MNCs as Knowledge Management

Expatriate Management in MNCs as Knowledge Management Expatriate Management in MNCs as a Form of Knowledge Management and its Applicability in Reduction of Soaring Turnover Rates: a Case Study Approach Abstract This dissertation in International Human Relations addresses the potential of expatriate management as a tool of knowledge management and its applicability to the reduction of turnover rates in a global economy. Companies today cannot survive and prosper without some form of globalisation. When an appropriately planned expatriate program is utilised, the flow of information supports knowledge transfer, which can enhance the entire functionality of the company. The specific vehicle for knowledge transfer will be cross-cultural training, with its generalisable lessons for the global corporations. In this research, the case study approach is utilised along with the study of archival materials. After extensive research into the United States Peace Corp and its handling of expatriates, Tyco Flow Control/KTM Company of Japan and Electrolux of Sweden, supported by an extensive review of current literature, this dissertation reaches the conclusion that the decision on whether or not to use expatriates and in what fashion they should be used must be based on a combination of the needs of the company and the companys organisational structure. Expatriation is expensive and companies should plan for success if they intend to utilise an expatriate program. However, the knowledge gained from the study of expatriate programs can be successfully utilised to mange the spread of knowledge throughout the organisation and to develop interventions, which will lower the overall rate of turnover within an organisation. Certainly, we cannot afford to ignore these lessons. Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Chapter Introduction There are a number of challenges involved in the development of multi-national corporations (MNCs) in todays era of globalisation. Increasingly the trend has been for companies to utilise expatriates on tasks that are critical to the companys operation or continued success. MNCs use expatriates for a number of reasons. In general, the perception exists that it is easier to control an employee from the home office, carefully chosen and indoctrinated in the companys culture. Thus, the concept of corporate control plays a large role in the selection and the use of expatriates, but it is certainly not the only reason. Many times, expatriates have specialties that the company believes it can export when developing the global market. In addition, expatriates who have been thoroughly trained in the companys procedures can be very valuable during the process of entering new markets and setting up the office and administrative under structure that inevitably follows such expansion. Human resources management inevitably becomes more complex in an international venue. Companies must consider not only the corporate culture and the national culture of their home country, but also the national culture of the country or countries which they are expanding into. Expansion into other nations also brings with it a myriad of laws and regulations that may well conflict with the home countrys laws or rules. The situation becomes more complex with each additional field office or subsidiary that the company acquires or develops. 1.2 Context There is a great deal of research that suggests that the way companies manage their human resources contributes to whether or not the company will succeed or fail (Tung, 1984). International human resources management can make or break a new expansion, and poor management of expatriates within established MNCs can send the company into a crisis. Companies must be able to communicate with their employees and to coordinate actions, activities, and regulatory compliance between a number of corporate and governmental entities. Failure to do so successfully can affect the bottom line of any multi-national corporation or company, and can destabilise a company that is not experienced in dealing with international human resources. Financially, there is a great deal at stake for the MNC which utilises expatriates. The obvious cost, of course, occurs if the project that the expatriate is assigned to fails. Such a significant financial blow can, as pointed out, destabilise a company. There are many other costs associated with expatriate management, however, that may not be obvious on the surface. Employees must be recruited into the programme and trained. Their families should receive training regarding the area of assignment. Moving or relocation costs are significant even if the family travels light. Many companies provide housing assistance in the country of assignment, and trips back to the home country on a scheduled basis. All of these expenses add up. One additional expense that must be considered is the replacement of the employee who enters the expatriate programme. If the employee is already a member of the organisation, his or her transfer to a foreign office will leave an internal position that must be filled. MNCs must also consider the ramifications to the company if their expatriate behaves in a fashion that the host country members consider improper. The amount of ill will that can be generated throughout the host community can be nearly incalculable. Even though it is an indirect cost, it can be as devastating as a more direct financial loss. Even in the best of cases, when the expatriation fails without loss of business and the expatriate returns quietly to the home base, the expatriate may leave the company. When this happens, the company loses a valuable employee and the investment that went along with that employees training. When the problem of failed expatriation is looked at from these perspectives, it becomes clear that the financial repercussions may be greater than they appear at first glance, but the loss of money is only a small part of the overall problem of expatriate loss. Indeed, the operation of the entire organisation can be threatened, along with the investments from the companys stakeholders and employees. This provides a great deal of impetus for investigation of the issues related to expatriate management and reduction of turnover both nationally and internationally. In the past, one might make the argument that expatriates and local employees are not in the same category. After all, expatriates face other cultures on a routine, day to day basis. As a matter of fact, they are immersed in their home culture. As Hofstede (2003) points out, every culture defines its own version of being socially correct. These constraints govern how cultures do business. It has become big business to help companies and individuals understand the different ways that host companies interpret what we may consider average, day to day gestures. The various governments recognised this concept long ago. Virtually every country provides some form of training in culture applications for ambassadors and members of the state and foreign service divisions. Nevertheless, business has been slow to adopt that concept. Even when MNCs recognise the need to provide this training, they may not fully understand the impact that the difference in culture has on the employee. The employee generally travels with family, and it is as important to acknowledge that family members and their success at adaptation have a large input into whether or not the employee adapts successfully. Thus, MNCs that fail to include all the family members in a culture immersion programme fail in their handling of expatriates. Today, all companies operate in a multi-cultural environment. Even small mom and pop operations are exposed to customers, suppliers, or regulators who are from other cultures. Nearly every country is now a cultural melting pot of residents, and those that are relatively homogenous still have influx from visitors and tourists. While it is easy to downplay the importance of a single tourist who has wandered off the beaten path, it is impossible in this day and age of modern technology to estimate the importance of that single customer. Placed in context, an unfortunate interchange with an individual who turns out to an important stakeholder in his or her professional community can be devastating. Attitudes of employees to customers or suppliers can cause supply chains to dissolve, large numbers of customers to disappear, or contracts to be cancelled. In a sense globalisation has caused a return to small town front porch mentality where everyone either knows everyone or knows his or her cousin. The Internet and global communications offers such anonymity that it is now possible for a companys largest customer to conduct a surprise visit and not be recognised. Given the right – or wrong – circumstances, the impact on business can be devastating. It is this concern, the concern for the international aspect of all business today, that ties together large MNCs and small, at-home operations and cautions us to develop a greater understanding of other cultures, whether we manage expatriates, or merely serve customers in our tiny walk-in. How a company treats its customers and stakeholders affects the survivability of the business, and retention of well-qualified and well-trained employees is part of that survivability, especially when it relates to cultural aspects of functionality. This paper, then, addresses the system of business that relates to intercultural communication and impacts management of expatriates as well as the home office. At the present time, there is a great deal of research that shows the difficulty that expatriates face on assignment and on repatriation, and there is significant research that indicates that cross-cultural training offers possibilities for helping these employees adapt. There is a gap in the research between these issues and the types of cross-cultural training that may lead to a decreased turnover rate. Additional research may be most helpful. When we review what types of cross-cultural training may be most useful, there is also indication that successful expatriates who return from assignment and remain with their companies may be able to add to the knowledge base of successful adaptation. It is this concept that successful expatriates contribute to knowledge management that I address in this research. Successful management of this knowledge may contribute not only to a lowered turnover rate among expatriates, but may offer suggestions to how business can lower the turnover rate overall. I suggest the concept that expatriate management tends to overlook one extremely important concept: that turnover EVERYWHERE is extremely high, and it will be no different in the expatriate population if we treat regular employees in the same manner that we treat expatriates, assuming the expatriate programme is successful. Thus, development of a plan to manage and retain expatriates has great generalisability for the companys population as a whole with regard to retention. This concept has been touched on in the available research but is not fully developed. A work developing this concept can truly add to the field. 1.3 Aims and Objectives The aims and objectives of the research will be to explore why some MNCs are successful at increasing retention of expatriates and what role cross-cultural training plays in that success; to explain the steps that successful MNCs take in utilising the knowledge they gain in working with expatriates as a form of knowledge management, and to describe how this information can be utilised by other companies to lower the overall general turnover rate. A number of research questions evolved that will be useful in determining why some companies are so successful with expatriates while others are not. The questions will guide the research: How do some MNCs lower the rate of turnover of expatriates? How do companies that lower the rate of turnover of expatriates utilise what they have learned as a form of knowledge management? What role does cross-cultural training play in successful retention of expatriates? What is the generalisability of the success of expatriate management in the MNC as a form of knowledge management and its application to the reduction of soaring general turnover rates? 1.4 Rationale The overall turnover rate of employees throughout the world is soaring. The problem is particularly high in America. The cost to companies of employee turnover is so high that one sometimes wonders how the companies stay afloat. At the same time, there are a number of difficulties with expatriate management. As the rate of expatriate attrition increases, so does the cost to the multi-national company in both financial terms and in terms of morale. In researching problems with international human resources management, particularly problems associated with the management of expatriates, a link between increasing rates of general expatriate turnover and generally high rates of employee turnover seemed to present. Gaps in the research indicate there must be more research into the process of repatriation and knowledge management, for this is the point at which the greatest knowledge exchange back to the company in terms of cultural knowledge should occur. Research must determine what contributes to success repatriation and why some expatriates choose to terminate contracts early. All of these areas will be investigated. The next step, then, is to investigate why some companies seem to manage expatriate programmes successfully, and why some programmes fail. By reviewing successful expatriate management, we may learn general lessons of human resources management that may well contribute to the base of knowledge for the reduction of overall turnover rates throughout the working world. 1.5 Methodology Qualitative research seeks to address the why and how of occurrences, making it ideally suited for a project of this nature. Though there are many forms of qualitative research, two forms seem particularly applicable to the nature of this investigation. A literature review will be conducted, of course, to place the state of the knowledge of expatriate management in the context of general management of human resources. An archival investigation, however, will take and utilise the literature review as a starting point. Through a thorough investigation of archival materials available, additional research information will be gleaned. The case study method will also be utilised to investigate three specific multinational companies or organisations that have had a great deal of success with the expatriates that they managed. Case study approach allows me as the researcher to concentrate on details that might otherwise be overlooked in a traditional literature review. Archival review materials will also contribute to details of the case studies. 1.6 Chapter Outline Chapter One of the dissertation consists of an introduction to the study and places the study in context, the aims and objectives, rationale, and methodology of the paper are reviewed. Chapter Two reviews literature related to the topics of international human resources, expatriate management, turnover, and knowledge management. The literature review presents various perspectives of the research topic and reveals how previous researchers have investigated the topics. The literature review is expected to reveal gaps in the research and suggests areas that this research will explore. It is guided by the aims, objectives, and research questions, but can also provide an indication for modification of those aims, objectives, and questions if changes are needed. Finally, the chapter provides a framework for the overall research. Chapter Three discusses methodology of the research and details the strategies that were undertaken during the research, including data collection methods and methods of analysis. Methodology describes methods that were utilised to conduct the research and defines the reasons they were selected. Chapter Four provides the analysis or the synthesis of the research. It ties together the research questions, the theories behind the research, and the methods of doing the research. Finally, in a good research project, the analysis will actually raise questions that will be guidelines to future research in the field. Chapter Five details the main findings of the paper, gleaned from the analysis, and describes how the results are similar to prior research, but also how they differ. The contribution of the research to the knowledge base of expatriate management and reduction of general turnover rates will be provided, and the limitations of the research will be defined. Suggestions for future research will be provided and ways to reduce limitations of future research will be discussed in the context of the experience of myself as the researcher for this project. The paper will be concluded with a bibliography of works utilised in the preparation of the paper, and if necessary, supporting materials will be provided in appendices. 1.7 Chapter Summary This chapter has set the stage for the research project and dissertation. The subject matter was introduced, and the study was placed in context of international business and human resources. The aims and objectives of the research were described and the rationale for the dissertation was produced. A summary of the methodology of the paper was provided, and a chapter outline of the work was also presented. In summary, Chapter One set the stage for the research and provided an overview of the project. Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1 Chapter Introduction Today, all companies have retention problems (Ramiall, 2004). In 2005, the United States had an overall turnover rate of employment of 23%. Companies face fierce competition in the quest to retain employees (Mitchell, Holtom, and Lee, 2001). Hay (2002) reports that in the past 10 years, employee turnover increased by 25%, making the problem of retaining employees the number one employment problem in the United States (Kaye Jordan-Evans, 2000). With a shortage of potential labour until approximately 2012, the pool of qualified and available labour is small, making the problem of retention much more intense. Clearly a need exists to lower the rate of turnover in companies. While the presented references above are in evidence of a turnover rate in American companies, the issue is global, especially in this day of large multi-national companies. The problem is, perhaps, even more pronounced with expatriates due to the large amount of money it takes each MNC to recruit, train, and support expatriates and their families. A retained expatriate can be an asset to the company; a lost expatriate represents a significant financial drain. It makes sense, then, to explore how expatriates can be retained, and to utilise the knowledge gained to lower the overall turnover rate of the company, thereby increasing retention and decreasing costs. Retention of expatriates contributes to the companys knowledge management capacities and to retention of trained employees in the MNCs, and cross-cultural training seems to offer one of the most promising avenues to encourage retention of qualified employees. The literature review served as a basis of study during the preliminary phases of the project and was supplemented a great deal in the final paper. As the research developed, it was clear that there were many avenues that needed to be explored to gain a holistic understanding of the issues relating to international human resources management and successful administration of expatriation programmes. Through the course of the initial review of the literature, a link became clear between lessons learned by companies that have successful expatriation programmes and companies that could utilise this knowledge in lowering their turnover rates. All businesses today, it is clear, have a multi-cultural aspect that must be addressed. The issue then becomes how multi-culturalism will be addressed and how knowledge gained from successful expatriation can contribute to the overall knowledge of successful MNCs (Sizoo, Plank, Iskat, and Sernie, 2005). This project will help bridge the gap between l arge MNCs with offices in other nations, and smaller companies that may benefit from their knowlege. 2.2 Importance of International Human Resources Management Tye and Chen (2005) state that capturing and maintaining a competitive advantage is not the most important issue for many organisations. At its lowest common denominator, the purpose of business is to make a profit. Friedman (1970) even argued that business has a social responsibility to make a profit for its investors. Friedman argued that business leaders needed to do whatever it takes to acquire and maintain that profit. Tye and Chen (2005) point out that there is now a general consensus that larger companies must operate successfully on a global level in order to capture and maintain the competitive advantage which leads to profit. As businesses have an increasingly international role, how to manage the people in the business on a global scale becomes a huge challenge (Lee and Liu, 2006). Businesses cannot operate without people, despite an increasing dependence upon technology. In order to retain people, there must be adequate human resources management systems. For large international companies, then, the human resources managers and their systems must aim towards acquiring and maintaining people who are competent not only in business, but in functioning in the international environment (Liu and Lee, 2006). For many years, the tendency was to believe that management was the same whether the company being managed was in the managers home country or a foreign land. This universal approach to management is considered an ethnocentric approach (Dowling and Welch, 2004), in which the values established in a corporations home country are the values that predominate through every field office. In this form of management, all of the practices of the business stem from practices and values of the home office, and all of the employees that become managers in field offices are hired and trained at the home office. While this approach offers certain advantages (for instance, the level of corporate control), it is not the most beneficial model of operation if one hopes to expand the business significantly in the targeted areas of other nations (Kuhn, 2000). Indeed, as Kuhn points out, ethnocentric organisations have essentially no advantage in local market areas. What difference is there between a human resources manager that deals with employees within the bounds of one nation, and one that deals with international situations? The basic difference is that when dealing with international human resources issues, the level of complexity between the rules, regulations, and operating mechanisms between different countries can be overwhelming, especially when more than one group of national workers is involved (Dowling and Welch, 2004). The difference may well be less pronounced in the nations of the European Union, where laws and operating regulations have been standardised to a degree, but national identities of workers complicate the issues. Indeed, even strong cultural identification roles can impact the path that international human resources managers must take. In addition, employees who will be fulfilling an expatriate role must be carefully matched to the job. In 1998, Stone suggested that the selection of expatriate employees is much more difficult than selecting personnel who will remain in the home office. This contention, however, is one of the concepts that will be investigated in the research. While Dowling and Welch argue that the selection of expatriates with personal issues such as low capacity to adapt, poor emotional stability, or bad attitude leads towards failure of the match to the expatriates job, one might argue just as easily that a bad attitude, immaturity, and refusal to adapt are indicative of poor selection of any employee, not just an employee who will be expatriated. It may seem simplistic, but a good, stable expatriate employee will make a good employee. On the other hand, a good employee will not necessarily make an adequate expatriate. It is this rule that led to my decision to explore a potential link between expatriate retention and retention of the average employee. Sizoo et al. (2005) concluded that adequate c ross-cultural training of any employee in a MNC greatly increases employee effectiveness and can lead to increased promotions and pay raises, which cut turnover rates. The argument could also be made that the same would apply in smaller companies, especially those in areas with a high cross-cultural population component. An expatriate who has negative attitude, poor emotional stability and maturity, lack of language ability, and a low level of adaptability also is a poor choice in host nations, where the chance of culture shock already exists (Dowling Welch, 2004). 2.3 Turnover Todays companies are faced with the prospect of continually replacing employees who have left the company. The cost of turnover is high both in direct turnover rates related to the physical process of hiring and firing and in the indirect rates of education, checking of the references, and so on. The costs are even higher if the member that leaves is a member of the expatriates, or if the member has recently repatriated at cost to the company. Thus the company cannot afford to keep replacing employees from a financial cost and a morale cost. Some turnover is caused by tension with management while other turnover is caused by having unclear job expectations. Increasingly in the international arena employees leave because they do not understand what they have to do to get ahead, or they feel they followed the companys directions and are still not appreciated for the service they have rendered. Peter Senge has identified three types of leaders: the peer leader, the line manager and the executive. Each one works to help build collaboration, to educate staff, and to strengthen the company culture. Teamwork and teaching should be utilised as a method of advancement (Senge 1990, 1996) and it is in this way that the expatriate can be particularly utilised. These employees can become leaders, and be promoted to management in the future. 2.4 Four Approaches to Management Orientation What exactly constitutes a multi-national company? Loosely defined, it is a corporation or large company that provides goods and/or services in more than one country. The MNC may have operations in a fair number of other countries. To be able to supply goods or services across national lines, the company must have significant resources. Thus, MNCs by their definition have access to a great deal of money or financial backing. The company is financially able to acquire the goods, services, and personnel acquired to function at a high level. To put it bluntly, companies with large budgets can purchase the best; few people would argue that a multi-national company as large, for example, as Wal-Mart, will have an operating budget larger than some small companies. Given that many companies have budgets that can buy the best, why is the expatriate failure rate so high? Black and Mendenhall (1990) pointed out that over 40% of all assigned expatriates return home early, and the expatriates that remain in the host nation, only 50% function effectively. Does the failure of the expatriate lie solely in the personality and training of the individual expatriate? Some evidence suggests that failure may be associated with the approach to management that the multi-national organisation chooses. Management approaches in multi-national companies can be polycentric, ethnocentric, geocentric, or electocentric. Each of the four models is discussed briefly below. Polycentric The polycentric approach to management utilises the belief that managers in host countries know the best way to approach work within their country and are the most familiar with effective ways to manage businesses within their country (Banai and Sama, 2000). Companies that adopt this attitude have generally concluded that all countries are different and that local subsidiaries should adopt policies and practices that are appropriate locally and are under the direct supervision of local managers from the local area (Banfield, 1998). Kuhn (2000) states that polycentric organisations offer the greatest local control to subsidiaries, which can be a tremendous advantage when the local manager is effective and savvy to local culture, customs, and business operations. Polycentric models are sometimes referred to as multilocal models, or even a multidomestic organisation. Ethnocentric As pointed out earlier, ethnocentric management embodies the concept that the home office manager knows best, regardless of the circumstances or culture of the host office. Dowling and Welch (2004) characterise this as a universal approach to management and believe that the main advantage of this form of management is the level of control it offers the MNC. Another advantage of this mode of operation, however, is that it presents the company with a more homogenous approach to business: no matter which office one is in, things are done the same way; managers are selected for the same reasons regardless of the location, and promotional paths remain the same regardless of where one transfers. Kuhn (2000) states, however, that this mode of operation is a distinct disadvantage if one a company wishes to expand operations in the host company. It offers no benefits when dealing with the local population, and may well be a disadvantage in terms of understanding local procedures and cultural impacts to business. Geocentric In the geocentric mode of operation, the company makes the decision that no one culture or organisation is better than another. Instead, the company concentrates on operating in as culture-free a manner as possible. Every effort is made to have a central control system, combined with a high level of standardisation. The organisation itself encourages all office to participate in decision-making based on a global rather than local context (Myloni, Harzing, and Mirza, 2004). Geocentric organisations offer one huge advantage: they are able to hire the best person for the job, without regard to nationality or national location. According to Kuhn (2000), the geocentric mode of organisation offers the best local advantage, along with the polycentric mode. Companies that embrace the geocentric view are sometimes referred to as borderless, or transnational. Electocentric / Regiocentric This model, also known as transregional model, is a model of globalisation that combines the geocentric model with the polycentric model. Companies that adopt this model of operation will frequently develop into a global or geocentric model of operation. In this mode, managers are hired locally and may be transferred within a general geographic region. The region tends to be fairly independent of the home company and does enjoy a certain amount of autonomy. This mode offers most of the benefits of the geocentric model. 2.5 Other Views of Management Approach Goshal and Bartlett (1998) present a different few of management approaches of multinational companies. They define the approaches as multinational, global, international, and transnational. In their definition, multinational companies decentralise and tend to regard their overseas offshoots as separate business acquisitions with their own autonomy

In the American Society Essays -- Gish Jen

Gish Jen’s In the American Society is, on the surface, an entertaining look into the workings of a Chinese American family making their way in America. The reader is introduced to the life of a Chinese American restaurant owner and his family through the eyes of his American-born daughter. When we examine the work in depth, however, we discover that Jen is addressing how traditional Chinese values work in American culture. She touches on the difference in gender roles, generation gaps between immigrants and their American-born children, and the hesitance of these immigrants to conform to the American way of life. To truly understand multicultural literature, one must first try to understand the cultural background of the author. In the case of this piece, we are examining the Chinese culture and Jen’s experiences which shaped her writing. Gish Jen is a second-generation American. Her parents immigrated separately in the 1940’s. Her mother came to America to go to graduate school and her father came as part of the war efforts during World War II. With the rise of Communism in China, both were forced to remain here and ended up building a life together and raising their 5 children as Americans. Because they came in the second of three â€Å"waves† of Chinese Immigration, their reasons for coming and the process of assimilating into the American way of life was very different than other Chinese immigrants. During the first wave, from 1849-1882, the reasons for immigrating were mainly economic. Thousands of poor young males came from China to labor in America. In 1882, however, the Chinese Exclusion act was passed, making it so the second wave of immigrants contained only diplomats, merchants, and students. Chinese immigrants were segregated from mainstream America and lived in Chinatowns with no diplomatic rights until the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Along with this act came the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which allowed more Chinese to come to America to be with their families. This was also the time where equality was being demanded by many young Chinese Americans. We are currently in the third wave of Chinese immigration. At this point, most of the people coming over are either select well-educated Chinese or those looking to escape repression and political instability in their homeland. Chinese culture is rich with tradition and values, which pai... ...e water, Mr. Chang put that pride above his better judgment by throwing both the shirt and the suit coat in the water. This story is an allegory of life for many Chinese Americans. Many came to America for the opportunity to lead a better life. Entrepreneurship is a big part of that American dream. The Changs’ owning a pancake house represents so many of the Chinese people that own their own restaurants upon coming to America. Mr. Chang’s hesitance to Americanize and his idea that â€Å"to embrace what he embraced was love† also represents the views of many Chinese immigrants. Jen’s own parents maintained some of their own ideas of how she should live her life. They didn’t believe that writing was an honorable thing for a woman to do and didn’t support her in her decision until her picture and story was run on the front page of a Chinese newspaper and â€Å"their people† accepted it. Works Cited Chinese Immigration to the United States. Accessed 03/27/2005. Lauter, Paul. The Health Anthology of American Literature. Accessed 03/20/2005. Moyers, Bill. Public Affairs Television "Becoming American: Personal Journeys" Interview with Gish Jen. 2003. Accessed 03/23/2005.

Free Internet Essays: We Must Not Permit Internet Censorship :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

We Must Not Permit Internet Censorship    The internet is the largest and most diverse source of information our planet has ever known. The internet is integrating our daily life transactions. This is possible because newspapers, television programs, movies, phone calls, computer data, commercial services such as banking and shopping, and a host of other sources of information and communication are all being reduced to the same digital format, and are all be sent along fiber optic cable (Harvard Law Review, 1994).    The libraries of the world, once on line will combine to form a larger base of information than anyone ever imagined. This vast library of information will be accessible in an instant, with the click of a mouse, where internet technology is available. We can compare the internet to another technological advance, which also changed the world. The knowledge potential created by the diverse information accessible on the web is similar to the energy potential realized when we discovered nuclear energy. Like nuclear energy, knowledge is very powerful, and can be used to for both good and evil deeds. Knowledge can indeed have the same converse negative side to it like nuclear energy does. Nuclear energy can be used to power entire cities, or it can be used to erase them. There is an important distinction to be made here. Knowledge is what we use to search for the truth in life, and this fact makes knowledge indispensable. Once we know the truth we can be free from manipulation. Because the internet is so unique in the way it allows access to information, we must protect the internet as a very precious resource. Censoring the internet, a cause, leads to a chain of related effects. The first of which is the upset of the natural balance of information on the internet. This happens when information is removed, thus narrowing the spectrum of available information. From this spectrum of information we derive bits of knowledge. So the second effect of censoring the internet is reduced knowledge. If we allow censorship to weaken the material our searching tool, knowledge, is made of, then we might even lose the truth. The loss of the truth is the third effect of censoring the internet. The final effect of censoring the internet is manipulation made easy. Before we follow this causal chain through its effects, I think it is important to explain what I mean by the truth.

Tourism Industry Essay -- Urban Development, Rural Areas

Tourism industry is influenced by various factors including sociocultural evolution and political relationship. Particularly after the Islamic Revolution of 1978 in Iran, a new policy on tourism brought new conditions of tourism with emphasis on pilgrimage tourism. Generally, tourism is known as one of the essential element of rural development. In Iran, there are many sacred places where are regularly visited by pilgrimages. Some of the holy places are located in rural areas, and they are attractive to many visitors. In the undeveloped rural areas, the community suffers from several socioeconomic problems including poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and even depopulation. Sometimes the rural development is ignored by state planning, in the favor of urban development. The Government’s open market policy on agriculture[if it is open, why government]. These problems lead to the stagnation of economy, and eventually the degradation of the quality of life in rural areas. Rural tourism provides opportunity to create jobs and to diversify incomes for rural households. In recent years, the local government has considered the tourism activities. Since 2005, the state authority of Iran has been playing a leading role in the development of rural tourism. The Tourism Sample Village (TSV) is a main project to study the possibility and potentiality of local resources. In addition, the TVS focus on the development of rural tourism and the encouragement of local inhabitants. Rural tourism is a sustainable program to support the local society and to conserve the local environment. In other words, the TVS acts as a pivotal basis to establish a sustainable local tourism in the country (Clarke, Denman, Hickman & Slovak, 2001). Rural tour... ...and low level of income. The unsuitable traditional agrarian system exacerbates this situation; rural lands are no longer supportive for local households. As a result, this condition is the main reason of poverty; hence, per capita rural income is less than national average. Rural areas in Iran suffer from low public services, high unemployment rate, and high emigration rate; these factors jeopardize the whole structure of life. As a result, tourism is as a supplementary approach to reverse the decline in the productivity of rural areas. Rural tourism offers solutions to many of the problems facing rural areas such; these include economic growth, sociocultural development and environment development. Therefore, tourism is an integral element of sustainable rural development policy. These effects of rural tourism are indicated in Figure 1 (Sharpley, 2002).

Industry Trends in Charter Schools

Industry Trends A charter schools is a new or converted public schools that are started by parents seeking another alternative to other existing schools in the area. Charter schools have been developed to serve a particular mission such as on art, or with a particular ethnic emphasis. Charter schools are still public schools. However, there is strict accountability to maintain high standards and charter schools are given freedom from many of the regulations that apply to other public schools, which allows for greater flexibility and innovation in the classroom (INCS).Charter schools are helping in closing the achievement gap that often happen in traditional public schools. They are raising the bar of what is possible and what should be expected in public education. Charter schools are effective for lower income and lower achieving students and aide in shattering low expectations and breaking through long-standing barriers that have prevented large numbers of students from underserved communities from achieving educational success. Studies have been shown some show charters outperforming traditional public schools.Compared to students in the matched public school, charter students are 5. 2 percent more likely to be proficient in reading and 3. 2 percent more likely to be proficient in math on their state's exams (Hoxby, p. 1). One of the many benefits of transforming to a charter schools is to be provide educational alternatives to families that would otherwise have no ability to choose a school. Middle-income families in the United States typically choose a school by choosing their residence and they often enjoy substantially freedom of choice.High-income families can choose a school by choosing residence in affluent neighborhoods whose property taxes also aide in financing schools in addition to state funds or they can afford to pay private school tuition. Thus, they can often choose over a variety of public and private schools. Low income families typically h ave little ability to choose a school and the property taxes which are usually low fund the school. Meaning limits on choice are few (Hoxby p. 18).Charter schools which are held to the same standards as public schools must take the same tests that are yielded to students in traditional public schools. However, accountability is different, tougher and parents are held accountable as well due to mandatory parental involvement. Parents that are vigorously involved in their child’s education will do better academically. Charter Schools offer parents in addition to board members and superintendent the chance to create schools that reflect their visions for their child’s education. Current IssuesSome educators feel that charter schools are not effective and have not been around long enough to prove if they are actually efficient. Cohen feels that they are performing worse than most traditional public schools even with all the funding they receive. The reasoning behind this i s due to inconsistency in staff because of the high turnover which can be equivalent to some traditional schools in poverty stricken neighborhoods. As she said, â€Å"all schools have their deficiencies, additional monies that charter schools receive could go to improve traditional public school educational reform† (Cohen).There are many educators who are for charter schools as stated by Jefferson Morales who claims â€Å"charter schools have the greatest chance to thrive when working collectively with administrators, teachers, students and parents which are all stakeholders in making sure that academic success is obtained. He also expresses that charters adhere to safe and systematic environment that is conducive to learning. It also allows for individualized instruction because the class sizes are smaller than traditional public schools, charters value quality teaching from great teachers of all walks of life.The curriculum is content-rich that is proven by research based instructional practices, teachers attend effective professional development seminars and charter schools have higher parental involvement† (Morales). Competiveness Those who back charter schools believe that charters create competition in the educational market, requiring traditional public schools to improve. Critics do not believe that competition encourages positive results and are concerned that the flowing of funds to charter schools will lessen the performance of traditional public schools and in so doing hurt students in traditional school settings.Zimmer and Gill, et al. , (2009) states studies that have examined systemic effects have used school level measures of competition, such as the distance from the charter school to nearby public schools or the proportion of the district’s students who are enrolled in charter schools. Hoxby (2002) and Bettinger (2005) used school-level outcomes to estimate competitive effects, while Holmes, DeSimone, and Rupp (2003); Bif ulco and Ladd (2006); Sass (2006); and Booker, Gilpatric, et al. (2005) used student-level data for more-refined analyses of competition in, North Carolina, Florida, and Texas.Generally, these studies found small, positive competitive effects or no effects on students in nearby traditional public schools (p. 77). Although studies have provided for understanding of the competiveness of charters and traditional schools the effects may differ across states and laws for two reasons. Zimmer (2010) First, there is considerable variation across the country in the extent to which school-district enrollments are growing or shrinking. In rapidly growing districts charter schools may act more like a release valve than a source of competitive pressure.Second, the specific details of charter laws and policies may determine the extent to which school districts feel competitive pressure. For example, states may have laws, in which districts do not lose the money when a student transfers to a chart er school, which in turn traditional schools do not have to compete for funding incentives for students (p. 79). For, instance there can only be 75 charter schools created in Chicago and 45 outside of Chicago. Laws governing charter schools in a state may require only so many schools which can restrict the competiveness between traditional and charter schools.Budgeting/Financing According to Illinois Network of Charter Schools, charters can seek and receive funding from several sources including individuals, businesses, fundraising and foundations. In addition, the U. S. Department of Education and the Walton Family Foundation each offers grants for starting charters. The Walton Family Foundation funding helps with the startup and planning of charter school. WFF currently offers three types of Startup Grants (INCS). †¢Pre-Authorization:$30,000 Maximum †¢Post-Authorization:$220,000 Maximum †¢Combination Startup: $250,000 MaximumThe Charter School Program which is a fed eral program provides up to 36 months of funding to charter schools from the time they submit a complete charter application through their second year of operations. CSP offers two ways that a charter can receive funds (INCS). †¢Through State Education Agencies †¢Directly to Charter Schools These funds will serve to assist new charter schools during the critical detailed planning stages and initial start-up of operations through pre-charter planning, program design, and initial start-up of operations through pre-charter planning, program design, and implementation grants (ISBE).In addition to the other options mentioned in funding the converted charter the district spent 9,517 per student. Converting to a charter will allow for more funds to be spent per child as compared to other districts that spend $12,000-$15,000 per student. This will greatly influence resources and training need to assist in the school meeting AYP. Under the No Child Left Behind law, schools are meas ured by how well students are doing. If students continue not to meet expectations it can result in teachers being replaced or the school closes. Operating Expenses Students (Traditional)The following charts show funding sources that District currently receives. Converting to a charter school would provide additional funding for improving districts Obtained from ISBE Recommendations Charter Schools are product of educational reform; Jordan Middle School is public school located in Chicago, IL this educational institution services African American and Hispanic children in grades 6th-8th. The school has been not made Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in four years. Yes, scores have been increasing yearly but has not meet state requirements as of today.If requirements are not meet in the fifth year Illinois State Board of Education will come in and take over the school. As shown in the chart below only 70. 9% of students out of 534 are meeting the Illinois Standardized Assessment Test. Th e ISAT score for the state is 82. 0% (ISBE). Teachers and parents are requesting that the School District convert the middle school to a charter school. Under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) law, all schools are encouraged to have very high participation rates on their state’s exam in order to make Adequate Yearly Progress.Transforming the middle school from a public school to charter school will provide an opportunity to implement school-level reform and support new innovations which will improve student learning and assist in meeting AYP. The Superintendent and Board Members can work with charter school requesters to suggest mechanisms that will line up the petition and the district’s goals and vision for student learning. This chart was obtained by Illinois Interactive Report Card shows ISAT score for 2011 which indicates that the middle school did not meet AYP. References http://iirc. niu. edu/District. aspx? istrictid=07016143502011) http://incschools. org/start_a _charter/startupfunding/ Hoxby, M. Caroline. (December, 2004). Achievement in charter schools and regular public schools in the united states understanding the differences (pg. , 1 & 18). Retrieved on January 1, 2012 from http://www. vanderbilt. edu/schoolchoice/downloads/papers/hoxby2004. pdf J. Cohen (personal communication, December 16, 2011 J. Morales (personal communication, November 20, 2011) Zimmer, R. , Gill, B. , Lavertu S. , Sass, T. , & White, B. (2009) Charter schools in eight states: effects on achievement, attainment, integration and competition. RAND Corporation, 77.

History of Movie Essay

Jon Lewis claimed that the new movies that were being written and produced marked a period of time where it was the â€Å"end of the cinema as we know it. † This could be argued either way by anyone who has both watched some of the classic movies of the past and viewed the new movies of today. There are many reasons to believe that modern movies are just as great as the movies form the past. The modern movies do have some differences that are present in that there are better affects, better overall research, but still the same magical qualities and wonderful imagination that went into films of the past. Therefore it will be argued that it is not the end of the cinema as we know it. By looking at movies from the past, middle time periods and more recent times it can easily be argued that many movies of these time periods put together great plot lines, memorable characters and wonderful lasting interest among those who have watched them. In 1942 Casablanca was released. This movie introduced the world to some of the most memorable characters in film history. It was a true love story that enveloped the viewer and allowed them to feel close to characters like Rhett Butler and Scarlet O’Hara. This movie also gave the viewer a hope that love could prevail above all else. In an argument about how there are still movies made that have these same values, a great story plot line that whisks the viewer into another world and a cast of unforgettable characters one could look at the movies ET and Mullholland Drive. ET was released in 1982 and again introduced the viewer to ET and the wonderful family that allowed him to be at home in their home. The movie brought hope to many that all people could be accepted and that no matter how different one was there was a way for them to be able to gain such acceptance. Mullholland Drive also used some of these same key factors although it was released years later in 2001. This movie’s plot was a bit difference and rather than giving hope about a life that could possibly happen it instilled some fear in people about what could possibly happen if luck were to strike one the other way. However the movie was a great a film that incorporated many different aspects of film technique and it also left a memory in the mind of the viewer as David Lynch (the film’s producer) was able to portray such a real portrayal of life. When looking through movies that are from the different time periods of the American cinema it is easy to see that the times and what is going on really do affect the movies that are popularized and remembered as being part of the time period. These movies depict both current things that are happening as well as looking at the historical events. In 1949 The Sands of Iwo Jima was released and quickly became a popular hit and movie and yet is another movie that has continued to be viewed by audiences over the past six decades. This movie was a portrayal of a group of U. S. Marines that were in a battle in World War II. In light of the times the movie was a portrayal of a part of the world that was unknown to many of the people who were living in the United States. Some more modern movies, although maybe a bit more far fetched, have also looked at the times and what is going on and have drawn their conclusions from these themes. One of these movies was 1999’s The Matrix. This movie was released during one of the largest technological booms that the country has seen. This movie portrayed aspects of the new forms of technology and what could happen if the world continued to grow technologically more advanced. Another movie that looked at problems associated with modern times was Sin City which was released in 2005. This movie looked at the world of crime and organized crime as it has been able to advance in more modern times. Another way that the cinema has been upheld is through the ways that values and beliefs have been portrayed through the movies of the time. Obviously through modernization there have been changes in the way that beliefs have been looked at but through the cinema these beliefs have been marked for all future generations in great pic time pieces that look at the things that are involved. This topic of values, although still portrayed in films has changed greatly. In 1959 Ben Hur was released and it promoted the standard values and beliefs of Christianity and the morals that are portrayed in The Bible. This movie was portrayed in this way as the majority of the country upheld these same beliefs and values. In the 1970’s the morals of the Untied States were changing drastically. By looking at films and the portrayal of interest in organized crime and more cynical events, as evidenced in 1972’s The Godfather, one can see that although the morality and the values of the country were still being upheld they were changing and the films were changing to meet the demands and interests of the people at the time. Much later in 1994’s Pulp Fiction, there was still this profound interest in crime and the ways that organized crime has been ran only there were much less morals in the overall themes than there had been previously in film. This is due in part to the continued evolution of change in the morality of the citizens of the United States. There have also been monumental portrayals of creativity and imagination in the movies that have been portrayed throughout the times. There have been different types of creativity and imagination has evolved but these features have given the viewer a place to escape to and somewhere that they would like to travel by watching the films over and over again. In 1965’s The Sound of Music, one is led into a world where a wonderful nanny moves in with some rather obnoxious children and learns how to befriend and be able to do her job through the magic of music. This movie whisked the viewer away to another place and led the viewer to hope that he/she was able to have that same type of sing-song wonderful life. In 1999’s The Blair Witch Project a group of college students decided to get creative and make a movie that would end up making them millions. This movie did focus a bit on the mythical belief that there could be modern day witches or members of the occult in the world around the viewer. The film was creatively filmed in a manner that led the viewer to believe that it was a work of non-fictional filming and that the events that were happen on camera were really happening to the actors. Another great portrayal of creativity has been in The Polar Express, released 2004. This film was the cinematic portrayal of a classic children’s book that was meant to show the viewer the wonder and mystery of Christmas and Santa Claus. All of these films used creative elements and things that the viewers could appreciate and that would add a little bit of mystery and fun to the viewers’ lives. In conclusion cinema has changed and evolved over the years. Although there is no way to say that cinema has ended as it was once known. Films are still portraying the same types of things as they have in the past. There are the films that are portraying a story line and are meant to whisk the viewer away, films that are looking at historical events and evolvement, films that are looking at the values and morals of the time period in which they are created, and films that are used purely to induce imagination and creativity. It is absurd to think that there was not supposed to be any type of evolvement in the world of film however it is also absurd to think that this has to be a negative thing and that it has to end the world of cinema or film as it was previously known. Therefore it is logical to disagree with Jon Lewis’ thoughts on the world of cinema changing in a negative way.